Remote work refers to working from a location other than the traditional workplace, often supported by digital technologies. It can include working from home, hybrid work, telework, smart work, proximity work or mobile work.

In many cases, remote work allows employees to organise their professional and personal responsibilities more flexibly. It can reduce commuting, support work–life balance and make it easier to combine employment with childcare or other caring responsibilities.

However, remote work can also create new risks. These may include isolation, excessive screen exposure, poor ergonomic conditions, psychosocial pressure, unsuitable home-working spaces and difficulties disconnecting from work.

For REMAKING, remote work is not only a question of where people work. It is a wider phenomenon that may reshape social relations, organisational models, local economies and the relationship between urban, rural and peripheral territories.

Key learning points

• Remote work means working away from the traditional workplace, often through digital technologies.
• It can include home-based work, hybrid work, telework, smart work, proximity work and mobile work.
• It can improve flexibility and work–life balance, but it can also create risks for well-being.
• REMAKING studies remote work as a possible driver of wider social, economic and territorial change.

Remote work is usually understood as a flexible working arrangement. REMAKING challenges this limited view by studying remote work as a potential lever of socio-economic transformation.

The project argues that remote work is connected to long-term transformations such as digitalisation, globalisation, flexible production models and the development of knowledge- and innovation-based economies.

These long-term processes have been accelerated by major disruptions, especially the COVID-19 pandemic and the Russian invasion of Ukraine. As a result, remote work has expanded across different sectors, territories and social groups, creating new opportunities but also new uncertainties.

REMAKING therefore examines how remote work may affect individual workers, organisations, labour markets, public services, mobility, housing and territorial development.

Key learning points

• Remote work is more than a flexible employment arrangement.
• It is linked to digitalisation, globalisation and flexible work organisation.
• It has been accelerated by disruptions such as COVID-19 and the war in Ukraine.
• It can affect workers, organisations, local economies and public policies.

REMAKING distinguishes between megatrends and disruptions. Megatrends are long-term transformations that affect societies and economies on a large scale. These include digitalisation, globalisation, climate change, demographic change and the growth of knowledge-based economies.

Disruptions are sudden events or shocks that interrupt established practices and create uncertainty. The COVID-19 pandemic rapidly expanded home-based work across Europe. The Russian invasion of Ukraine created new forms of remote work among displaced people who continued working while moving within Ukraine or to other countries.

This distinction helps REMAKING understand two broad forms of remote work. Some remote workers are self-selected: they use digital technologies and flexible work arrangements to choose where and how they work. Others are enforced remote workers: they adopt remote work because of circumstances beyond their control, such as lockdowns, war or displacement.

Key learning points

• Megatrends are long-term transformations such as digitalisation and globalisation.
• Disruptions are sudden shocks such as pandemics or wars.
• Remote work can be self-selected or enforced.
• This distinction helps explain differences in autonomy, vulnerability and resilience.

REMAKING studies remote work through three interconnected societal dimensions. This allows the project to understand remote work as a complex phenomenon rather than as a single employment practice.

The first dimension concerns individuals’ living and working conditions. This includes employment arrangements, everyday life, identities, professional experiences, work–life balance, health and well-being, gender, caring responsibilities, housing conditions and access to digital infrastructure.

The second dimension concerns organisations and business models. Remote work can affect management, communication, coordination, organisational culture, skills, innovation processes and the role of digital platforms. It can also support new forms of distributed or polycentric organisation.

The third dimension concerns socio-economic and territorial transformations. Remote work may influence labour markets, demographic trends, mobility, housing, consumption, demand for public services and the responses developed by local institutions.

Key learning points

• Remote work affects individuals, organisations and territories.
• The individual dimension includes work–life balance, well-being and working conditions.
• The organisational dimension includes management, coordination, skills and innovation.
• The territorial dimension includes labour markets, housing, mobility, services and local development.

A central feature of REMAKING is its focus on second-tier cities and rural areas. These territories are often less studied than major metropolitan centres, even though remote work may strongly affect their future development.

Remote work may allow some professional activities to be carried out from smaller cities, rural communities or peripheral regions. This can create opportunities for population attraction, local consumption, coworking spaces, proximity work, knowledge circulation and economic diversification.

However, these benefits are not automatic. Remote work can also create risks, including housing pressure, rising living costs, social and spatial inequalities, pressure on public services, weak digital infrastructure and difficulties integrating temporary or highly mobile populations.

REMAKING therefore promotes a place-based and place-sensitive approach. This means that policies should be adapted to local capabilities, institutions, infrastructures, communities and specific territorial needs.

Key learning points

• Remote work may reshape the relationship between metropolitan and non-metropolitan areas.
• Second-tier cities and rural areas may attract workers, skills and economic activity.
• Risks include housing pressure, inequality and pressure on services.
• Policies should be adapted to each territory’s specific conditions.

One of the key policy-related examples in REMAKING is SmartBo, an initiative launched in 2019 through an agreement between the Municipality of Bologna, the Metropolitan City of Bologna and around thirty public and private organisations.

SmartBo promotes remote and smart working as “new ways of working” that can contribute both to the transformation of work and to the sustainable development of the city and its surrounding areas. It is connected to the UN Agenda 2030 and several Sustainable Development Goals, including health and well-being, gender equality, decent work, innovation, sustainable cities and climate action.

The initiative focuses on organisational innovation, flexibility in working hours and spaces, well-being, autonomy and work–life balance. It also promotes sustainable mobility and the rethinking of public and private workplaces in order to support a “city of proximity”.

In REMAKING, the Bologna pilot action builds on SmartBo and focuses especially on proximity collaborative offices. This means exploring how shared workspaces closer to home can reduce commuting, support work–life balance and contribute to sustainable urban and territorial development.

Key learning points

• SmartBo connects remote work with sustainable urban development.
• The initiative involves the Municipality of Bologna, the Metropolitan City and public/private organisations.
• It promotes organisational innovation, sustainable mobility and proximity work.
• REMAKING builds on SmartBo through a pilot action focused on proximity collaborative offices.

REMAKING aims to transform research findings into practical knowledge for policymakers, local authorities, organisations, workers and communities. The project’s goal is not only to study remote work, but also to support evidence-based decision-making.

The project develops a comprehensive, evidence-based and policy-oriented framework. This framework helps explain how remote work affects individuals, organisations and territories, and how policy responses can be adapted to different places.

REMAKING also develops practical policy tools and learning environments. These include a Policy Toolbox, a Policy Learning Programme, pilot actions, workshops, policy recommendations and a Community of Practice. These tools are intended to help policymakers and stakeholders understand when intervention is needed and how measures can be adapted to local contexts.

The project also emphasises mutual learning and knowledge sharing. By working with stakeholders, local institutions and practitioners, REMAKING aims to raise awareness of the opportunities and challenges of remote work and to support more resilient, inclusive and innovation-based territories.

Key learning points

• REMAKING connects research with practical policy action.
• The project develops a comprehensive evidence-based framework.
• Policy tools include a Policy Toolbox, Policy Learning Programme, workshops and pilot actions.
• The Community of Practice supports knowledge exchange and transfer to other territories.

This case study focuses on digital nomads, a form of remote work strongly connected to digitalisation, global mobility and the increasing flexibility of knowledge-based employment.

Digital nomads use digital technologies to work while moving between different places. They may choose where to live according to lifestyle preferences, professional opportunities, cost of living, climate, community, access to services or the presence of coworking and coliving spaces.

REMAKING studies digital nomadism in Greece and Portugal. The project looks at how digital nomads interact with host territories, local communities, coworking spaces, housing markets, services and local economies.

This case is especially relevant because digital nomadism can create opportunities for destinations seeking to attract skilled workers and diversify their economies. However, it can also create pressures on housing, public services, local communities and patterns of consumption.

Main issues explored

• Digital nomads’ mobility and lifestyle choices
• The role of coworking, coliving and collaborative spaces
• Impacts on housing markets and local services
• Relations between digital nomads and host communities
• Opportunities for local economic activity
• Risks of temporary or unstable population flows

Why this case matters

Digital nomadism shows how remote work can connect global professional activities with very specific local places. It raises an important policy question: how can territories benefit from attracting mobile workers while avoiding negative effects on housing, services and local communities?

Question for reflection: Can digital nomadism support local development without increasing pressure on housing and services?

This case study focuses on post-pandemic remote work in Italy, especially in Bologna, Milan and their surrounding territories. The COVID-19 pandemic rapidly expanded remote work and changed the way many organisations and workers think about offices, commuting and work–life balance.

Although emergency restrictions have ended, many workers continue to work remotely for part of the week through hybrid arrangements. This raises new questions about organisational culture, management, the use of office space, mobility, housing and local development.

In Bologna, REMAKING connects this case study with the SmartBo initiative, launched in 2019 by the Municipality of Bologna, the Metropolitan City of Bologna and around thirty public and private organisations. SmartBo promotes smart and remote working as a way to support organisational innovation, well-being, autonomy, work–life balance and sustainable mobility.

This case also explores proximity work: the possibility of using workspaces closer to home instead of commuting to a central office. Proximity work can help reduce commuting, support more sustainable mobility and contribute to the idea of a “city of proximity”.

Main issues explored

• Hybrid work after the COVID-19 pandemic
• Work–life balance and the right to disconnect
• Changing use of offices and workplaces
• Proximity work and collaborative offices
• Sustainable mobility and reduced commuting
• The role of SmartBo in Bologna
• Impacts on metropolitan, suburban and rural areas

Why this case matters

The Italian case shows how remote work can become part of broader urban and territorial strategies. It is not only about working from home, but also about rethinking workplaces, mobility and the relationship between city centres, surrounding municipalities and rural areas.

Question for reflection: Can hybrid and proximity work help create more sustainable relationships between city centres and surrounding territories?

This case study focuses on highly skilled workers in technology-intensive sectors in Ireland. Many of these workers can perform their tasks digitally, which gives them greater opportunities to work remotely or through hybrid arrangements.

Ireland has become one of Europe’s major centres for technology and innovation, with Dublin attracting many global technology companies. However, REMAKING also looks beyond Dublin, focusing on the potential of second-tier cities and rural areas.

The project pays particular attention to cities such as Cork and Galway, which are developing their own entrepreneurial and innovation ecosystems. Cork is linked to software and blockchain-related activities, while Galway has strengths in biomedical activities. These places may attract remote workers, freelancers and aspiring entrepreneurs who want to remain connected to professional networks without living in the largest metropolitan centre.

At the same time, REMAKING recognises that remote work alone may not be enough to generate relocation or local development. Smaller territories also need housing, transport, services, digital infrastructure and strong professional ecosystems.

Main issues explored

• Remote work in high-technology sectors
• Highly skilled workers and professional mobility
• Innovation ecosystems in Cork and Galway
• Links between remote work, entrepreneurship and local development
• Housing, transport and services outside Dublin
• Knowledge circulation between metropolitan and non-metropolitan areas
• The limits of remote work as a tool for relocation

Why this case matters

The Irish case helps explain whether remote work can support innovation and economic development beyond major metropolitan centres. It explores how knowledge, skills and entrepreneurial activity may circulate through remote work, and whether second-tier cities can benefit from this process.

Question for reflection: Is remote work enough to attract highly skilled workers and new economic activity to smaller cities and rural areas?

This case study focuses on remote workers affected by enforced migration, especially displaced Ukrainian workers. The Russian invasion of Ukraine forced many people to leave their homes, either relocating within Ukraine or moving to other European countries.

Some displaced workers have continued to work remotely for Ukrainian employers, international organisations or clients in other locations. In these cases, remote work can provide continuity of income, professional identity and social connection during a period of disruption.

However, remote work under conditions of displacement can also create new vulnerabilities. Displaced workers may face legal uncertainty, language barriers, discrimination, caring responsibilities, weak social networks and difficulties accessing suitable housing, digital infrastructure and workplaces.

REMAKING studies these experiences in Germany, the Czech Republic and Ukraine. The case examines how remote work can become a resilience strategy, while also showing how disruption, uncertainty and vulnerability affect people’s working and living conditions.

Main issues explored

• Remote work as a response to war and displacement
• Continuity of income and professional identity
• Legal uncertainty and institutional barriers
• Language barriers and social integration
• Caring responsibilities and gender-related challenges
• Access to housing, workplaces and digital infrastructure
• Resilience, vulnerability and local support networks

Why this case matters

This case shows that remote work is not always chosen freely. Sometimes it emerges as a response to crisis. It helps REMAKING understand how remote work can support people in difficult circumstances, but also how it can expose them to new forms of insecurity and inequality.

Question for reflection: How can remote work support displaced workers while avoiding new forms of vulnerability?

Hybrid work combines remote work with work from a traditional workplace, such as an office. In many organisations, employees work from home or another location for part of the week and spend the remaining days at the office.

Hybrid work can reduce commuting and support work–life balance, but it also requires clear rules, effective management and careful attention to communication, inclusion and equal access to opportunities.

The right to disconnect refers to workers’ ability to disengage from work-related tasks, messages and digital communications outside working hours. It has become increasingly important with the growth of remote and hybrid work.

A sustainable remote-work model should protect workers’ time, support well-being and avoid the expectation of permanent availability.

Digital nomads are workers who use digital technologies to work while moving between different places. They may choose locations based on lifestyle, climate, cost of living, professional opportunities, community or access to services.

Digital nomadism can create opportunities for host territories, but it can also affect housing, services, local communities and patterns of consumption.

Proximity work refers to working from a location closer to home instead of commuting to a central office. This may include coworking spaces, shared work hubs, neighbourhood offices or other local work facilities.

It can reduce commuting, support work–life balance and contribute to more sustainable mobility.

Housing is an important factor in the experience of remote work. Working from home requires space, comfort, privacy, digital connectivity and appropriate ergonomic conditions.

Housing also matters at territorial level. If remote work encourages people to move to smaller cities, rural areas or attractive destinations, this can increase demand for housing and affect affordability.

Place-based policies are designed according to the characteristics, needs and resources of specific territories. Place-sensitive policies recognise that the same measure may have different effects depending on the local context.

For REMAKING, this approach is essential because remote work affects territories differently. A measure that works in a metropolitan area may not be suitable for a rural community, a second-tier city or a peripheral region.

Remote work: Work carried out from a location other than the traditional workplace, often supported by digital technologies.

Hybrid work: A work arrangement combining remote work with work from an office or another employer-provided workplace.

Telework: Work performed away from the employer’s premises using information and communication technologies.

Smart work: A flexible approach to work organisation based on autonomy, objectives, digital tools and flexibility in time or place.

Proximity work: Work carried out from a place closer to the worker’s home, such as a coworking space or local work hub.

Digital nomad: A worker who uses digital technologies to work while moving between different locations.

Right to disconnect: The ability of workers to disengage from work-related communications and tasks outside working hours.

Coworking space: A shared workplace used by workers from different organisations, freelancers, entrepreneurs or remote workers.

Coliving space: A shared living environment that may also include work facilities and community activities.

Second-tier city: A city that is important at regional or national level but is not the main metropolitan centre of a country.

Rural area: A non-urban territory that may be close to cities, connected to functional urban areas or more remote and peripheral.

Territorial cohesion: The goal of reducing inequalities between territories and supporting balanced development.

Place-based policy: A policy designed according to the specific characteristics and needs of a territory.

Place-sensitive policy: A policy approach that recognises that measures may have different effects depending on local context.

Self-selected remote work: Remote work adopted by workers who have a degree of choice over where and how they work.

Enforced remote work: Remote work adopted because of disruption or circumstances beyond the worker’s control, such as a pandemic or displacement.

Megatrends: Long-term transformations affecting societies and economies, such as digitalisation, globalisation, climate change or demographic change.

Disruptions: Sudden events or processes that interrupt established practices, such as pandemics, wars or natural disasters.

Policy toolbox: A set of resources, data, good practices, methodologies and recommendations that can help policymakers design better responses.

Community of Practice: A space for sharing experiences, practices, case studies and learning resources among stakeholders.

Remote work can be a tool for social, economic and territorial development, but only if its effects are properly understood. Public authorities should avoid treating remote work as a simple solution that produces the same results everywhere.

The impact of remote work depends on the characteristics of workers, employers, sectors and territories. A policy that works in a large metropolitan area may not be appropriate for a rural community or a second-tier city.

Key policy priorities

• Protect remote workers: Remote workers should have adequate health, safety and employment protections.
• Support the right to disconnect: Policies and organisational cultures should help workers separate working time from personal time.
• Improve digital infrastructure: High-quality internet access is essential, especially in rural and peripheral areas.
• Address housing pressure: Remote work can influence housing demand and affordability.
• Invest in local services: Childcare, healthcare, transport, education and community facilities are important.
• Support coworking and proximity work: Shared workspaces can provide alternatives to both home-working and long-distance commuting.
• Promote gender equality: Remote work can support caring responsibilities, but it can also reinforce inequalities if not properly managed.
• Strengthen local ecosystems: Remote work can support local development when connected to employers, training providers, public authorities and communities.

Checklist for local authorities

• Does the territory have reliable high-speed internet?
• Are there suitable coworking or proximity work facilities?
• Is housing affordable and available?
• Are public transport and mobility options adequate?
• Are childcare, healthcare and education services accessible?
• Are remote workers integrated into local communities?
• Are local employers involved in remote-work strategies?
• Are policies adapted to the specific needs of the territory?
• Are risks such as inequality, isolation and housing pressure being monitored?
• Are workers protected equally regardless of where they work?